In the ancient theory of the four humors, the cheerful sanguine type was linked to an excess of blood.
Missing Word
sanguine
Sanguine was the temperament Hippocrates associated with blood, describing a cheerful, optimistic disposition. The other humors were linked to choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic temperaments.
Category: Early Theories
Question 2
In Freud's model, the ego is the rational part of personality that follows the reality principle and balances primitive drives against moral standards.
Missing Word
ego
The ego is the decision-making part of Freud's structure of personality. It works under the reality principle, finding realistic ways to satisfy the id while respecting the limits set by the superego.
Category: Freud's Psychodynamic Theory
Question 3
Accusing a partner of disloyalty to hide one's own wish to cheat illustrates projection, a defense mechanism in which one's unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else.
Missing Word
projection
Projection reduces anxiety by placing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings onto another person. The person sees the threatening feeling in someone else rather than in themselves.
Category: Freud's Psychodynamic Theory
Question 4
A man who insists he has no drinking problem despite repeated arrests for drunk driving is using denial, the defense mechanism of refusing to accept an unpleasant reality.
Missing Word
denial
Denial protects the ego by refusing to acknowledge a threatening fact, even when the evidence is clear. Unlike repression, the information is not forgotten; it is simply rejected.
Category: Freud's Psychodynamic Theory
Question 5
Freud used the term fixation for remaining stuck at a psychosexual stage because a conflict at that stage was never resolved.
Missing Word
fixation
Fixation occurs when inadequate nurturing or an unresolved conflict leaves a person focused on one stage. Freud believed it shows up later in adult behavior, such as overeating in someone fixated at the first stage.
Category: Freud's Psychodynamic Theory
Question 6
Freud's first psychosexual stage, in which pleasure centers on the mouth and the main conflict is weaning, is the oral stage.
Missing Word
oral
The oral stage covers roughly the first year of life, when sucking and feeding are the main sources of pleasure. Freud linked fixation at this stage to adult habits such as smoking or overeating.
Category: Freud's Psychodynamic Theory
Question 7
Carl Jung used the term persona for the social mask people consciously adopt as a compromise between their true selves and what society expects.
Missing Word
persona
In Jung's theory, the persona is the public face a person presents to fit social roles. It is a compromise between who the person really is and what others expect.
Category: Neo-Freudian Theories
Question 8
Jung described introversion as an orientation in which a person draws energy from inner mental activity rather than from social contact.
Missing Word
introversion
Jung contrasted introversion, gaining energy from one's inner world, with extroversion, gaining energy from other people. He believed a balance between the two supports healthy self-realization.
Category: Neo-Freudian Theories
Question 9
Carl Rogers used the term congruence for a close match between a person's real self and ideal self, which he linked to healthy self-worth.
Missing Word
congruence
Congruence means a person's view of who they are is close to who they want to be. Rogers saw it as the basis for a healthy, productive life, while a large gap leads to maladjustment.
Category: Humanistic Approaches
Question 10
In twin research, heritability is the proportion of the variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.
Missing Word
heritability
Heritability estimates how much of the difference among people on a trait is due to differences in their genes. It describes a population, not how much of one person's trait comes from genes.
Category: Biological and Trait Approaches
Question 11
Raymond Cattell reduced a long list of trait words to 16 personality factors and created a questionnaire to measure them.
Missing Word
16
Cattell used factor analysis to narrow thousands of trait terms down to 16 factors, such as warmth and emotional stability. His 16PF questionnaire measures where a person falls on each one.
Category: Biological and Trait Approaches
Question 12
In the Big Five model, the trait that describes a tendency toward anxiety, moodiness and negative emotion is neuroticism.
Missing Word
neuroticism
Neuroticism is the Big Five dimension of emotional instability. High scorers are prone to worry and negative feelings, while low scorers tend to be calm and even-tempered.
Category: Biological and Trait Approaches
Question 13
In the Incomplete Sentence Blank, a projective test developed by Julian Rotter, people finish sentence stems such as "I wish..." in their own words.
Missing Word
Rotter
Julian Rotter, also known for the concept of locus of control, developed this sentence-completion test. Like other projective tests, it assumes that how people complete open-ended prompts reveals their wishes, worries and attitudes.
Category: Culture and Assessment
Question 14
The test in which people describe what they see in a series of symmetrical inkblots is named for Hermann Rorschach, who introduced it in 1921.
Missing Word
Rorschach
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a projective test: people say what they see in ambiguous blots, on the assumption that their interpretations reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings. Responses are scored for features such as which part of the blot is used and what content is reported.
Category: Culture and Assessment
Question 15
A Likert scale asks test takers to rate how strongly they agree with each statement, often from 1 for strongly disagree to 5 for strongly agree.
Missing Word
Likert
Named for Rensis Likert, this rating format is common in self-report inventories because it is quick and inexpensive. Its weakness is that people can answer in socially desirable ways.
Category: Culture and Assessment