The factor that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable.
This is the 'cause' that the experimenter controls, while the dependent variable is the 'effect' that is measured.
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Confounding Variable
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A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment, making it difficult to determine the true cause of the observed outcome.
Researchers aim to control for confounding variables to ensure that changes in the dependent variable are solely due to the independent variable.
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Random Assignment
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A procedure in experiments where participants are assigned to experimental or control groups purely by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between the groups.
This technique helps ensure that any observed differences between groups are due to the independent variable, not to initial participant characteristics.
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Double-Blind Procedure
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An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are unaware of who has received the treatment and who has received a placebo.
This method prevents both participant expectations (placebo effect) and researcher bias from influencing the study's results.
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Correlational Study
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A research method that examines the extent to which two variables are related, allowing for prediction but not establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Correlation does not imply causation; observing that two things occur together does not mean one causes the other.
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
In Pavlov's experiment, the bell started as a neutral stimulus and became the CS after being paired with food.
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Unconditioned Response (UCR)
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The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
This is an automatic, reflexive reaction that does not require prior learning.
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Acquisition (Classical Conditioning)
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The initial stage in classical conditioning where an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is established, leading to the conditioned response.
This is when learning first occurs, and the organism begins to respond to the previously neutral stimulus.
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Stimulus Generalization
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The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
A dog conditioned to salivate to a specific tone might also salivate to slightly different tones, demonstrating generalization.
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Positive Reinforcement
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Increasing the likelihood of a behavior by presenting a desirable stimulus after the behavior occurs.
Adding something good (e.g., praise, a treat) strengthens the preceding behavior.
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Negative Punishment
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Decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus after the behavior occurs.
Taking away something good (e.g., a phone, privileges) weakens the preceding behavior.
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Shaping
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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired final behavior.
This technique is often used to teach complex behaviors by rewarding small steps that lead to the ultimate goal.
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Variable-Ratio Schedule
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A schedule of reinforcement in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
This schedule produces high and consistent rates of responding because the reinforcement is unpredictable, like gambling.
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Working Memory
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A component of short-term memory that actively processes and manipulates information, linking new information with previously stored knowledge.
It's not just a temporary storage bin but an active mental workbench where we process current thoughts and integrate them with long-term memory.
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Explicit Memory
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Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare,' including semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (events).
This type of memory requires conscious recall, like remembering historical dates or what you had for breakfast.
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Misinformation Effect
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The phenomenon where a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.
This effect highlights how easily memories can be altered or distorted after the event, impacting eyewitness testimony.
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Encoding Specificity Principle
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The principle that retrieval cues are more effective when they are congruent with the cues that were present during encoding.
You are more likely to remember something if you are in the same context or emotional state as when you learned it (context-dependent and state-dependent memory).
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Proactive Interference
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When prior learning disrupts the recall of new information.
An old phone number you know well might make it harder to remember a new phone number.
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Absolute Threshold
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The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
This is the faintest detectable stimulus, such as the quietest sound or dimmest light a person can perceive.
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Sensory Adaptation
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A decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time, allowing us to focus on novel or important changes in our environment.
The smell of your own home eventually fades from your awareness because your sensory receptors stop responding to the constant stimulation.
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Perceptual Set
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A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by our experiences, assumptions, and expectations.
If you expect to hear a specific word in a noisy conversation, you are more likely to 'hear' it, even if it wasn't perfectly clear.
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Bottom-Up Processing
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Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
This is data-driven processing, where you assemble individual features into a whole perception, like recognizing an unfamiliar object by its basic shapes and colors.
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Critical Period
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A specific time during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily acquired, and if not learned then, may be difficult or impossible to learn later.
For example, learning a first language has a critical period in early childhood; acquiring fluency in a second language becomes much harder after puberty.
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Secure Attachment
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An attachment style characterized by infants who explore freely in their mother's presence, are visibly upset when she leaves, and are quickly comforted upon her return.
This style is associated with responsive and sensitive caregiving, fostering a sense of trust and security in the child.
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Object Permanence
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The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
This cognitive milestone, typically achieved during Piaget's sensorimotor stage, is why a baby will search for a toy hidden under a blanket.
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Theory of Mind
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The ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge) to oneself and others, and to understand that others' mental states may differ from one's own.
This cognitive ability is crucial for social interaction, empathy, and predicting others' behavior; it's often tested with false-belief tasks.
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Cognitive Perspective
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A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and language, and how they influence behavior.
This perspective views the mind as an information processor, focusing on how we interpret and remember events.
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Psychodynamic Perspective
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A psychological approach that emphasizes the unconscious drives and conflicts, early childhood experiences, and their influence on personality and behavior.
Originating with Freud, this perspective suggests that much of our behavior is driven by forces outside our conscious awareness.
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Humanistic Perspective
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A psychological approach that emphasizes individual potential for growth, self-actualization, and the importance of free will and self-determination.
This perspective focuses on human dignity and the inherent drive to achieve one's fullest potential, rather than on unconscious conflicts or learned behaviors.
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Behavioral Perspective
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A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through conditioning and environmental interactions, without reference to internal mental states.
This perspective, championed by Watson and Skinner, views psychology as the scientific study of behavior that can be measured and modified.