Unattached microbes are moved from the lungs to the epiglottis by the mucociliary escalator effect.
Missing Words
mucociliary, escalator
The mucociliary escalator is a crucial defense mechanism in the respiratory tract. Ciliated epithelial cells and mucus work together to trap and remove inhaled pathogens and debris, moving them upwards from the lungs to the epiglottis where they can be swallowed or expelled.
Question 2
Many bacterial pathogens produce capsules to evade phagocytosis.
Missing Word
capsules
Bacterial capsules are extracellular polysaccharide layers that surround bacterial cells. These capsules can inhibit phagocytosis by preventing the binding of phagocytic cells, thus enhancing the pathogen's ability to cause infection.
Question 3
The main type of antibody in the mucous membrane defenses is IgA.
Missing Word
IgA
IgA (immunoglobulin A) is the predominant antibody isotype found in mucosal secretions, including those of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts. It plays a critical role in neutralizing pathogens and preventing their attachment to mucosal surfaces.
Question 4
Laryngitis results from an inflammation of the “voice box.”
Missing Word
Laryngitis
Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx, commonly known as the voice box. This inflammation can be caused by viral or bacterial infections, overuse of the voice, or irritants, leading to hoarseness or loss of voice.
Question 5
Alveolar macrophages phagocytize potential pathogens in the lower lung.
Missing Words
Alveolar, macrophages
Alveolar macrophages are phagocytic immune cells residing in the alveoli of the lungs. They are responsible for engulfing and clearing inhaled pathogens, debris, and other foreign particles, playing a crucial role in maintaining lung sterility.
Question 6
Calcified lesions called Ghon complexes form in the lungs of patients with TB.
Missing Words
Ghon, complexes
In tuberculosis (TB), the immune system walls off the *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* bacteria in granulomas. Over time, these granulomas can calcify, forming visible lesions known as Ghon complexes, which are characteristic of TB infection.
Question 7
An inflammation of the middle ear is called otitis media.
Missing Words
otitis, media
Otitis media specifically refers to inflammation of the middle ear, often caused by bacterial or viral infections. This condition is common, especially in children, and can lead to ear pain and potential hearing problems if left untreated.
Question 8
The quellung reaction is used to serologically identify Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates.
Missing Words
quellung, reaction
The quellung reaction, or capsule swelling reaction, is a serological test where antibodies bind to the bacterial capsule, causing it to swell and become visible under a microscope. This reaction is particularly useful for identifying encapsulated bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Question 9
Psittacosis is a zoonotic infection that can be contracted by people who handle birds.
Missing Word
Psittacosis
Psittacosis, also known as parrot fever, is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci and is transmitted to humans through contact with infected birds. It's a zoonotic disease, meaning it can spread from animals to humans.
Question 10
The main virulence factor involved in scarlet fever is the erythrogenic toxin.
Missing Words
erythrogenic, toxin
Scarlet fever is primarily caused by Streptococcus pyogenes strains that produce erythrogenic toxin (also known as streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins). This toxin is responsible for the characteristic rash associated with the disease.
Question 11
The rubella virus is responsible for causing German measles.
Missing Word
rubella
Rubella virus, a member of the Togaviridae family, is the causative agent of German measles, also known as three-day measles. Infection during pregnancy can have severe consequences for the fetus, leading to congenital rubella syndrome.
Question 12
A(n) cytokine storm is an uncontrolled positive feedback loop between cytokines and leucocytes.
Missing Word
cytokine storm
A cytokine storm represents an excessive and uncontrolled release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to a dangerous positive feedback loop involving leukocytes. This can result in severe systemic inflammation and organ damage.
Question 13
In cases of shingles, the antiviral drug acyclovir may be prescribed.
Missing Word
acyclovir
Acyclovir is an antiviral medication commonly used to treat herpesvirus infections, including shingles (herpes zoster). It works by inhibiting viral DNA replication, thus reducing the severity and duration of the outbreak.
Question 14
The slow accumulation of genetic changes to an influenza virus over time is referred to as antigenic drift.
Missing Words
antigenic, drift
Antigenic drift refers to the gradual accumulation of point mutations in the genes encoding viral surface proteins, like hemagglutinin and neuraminidase in influenza viruses. This process allows the virus to evade the host's immune system, leading to seasonal epidemics.
Question 15
The MMR vaccine is effective in controlling both measles and rubella.
Missing Word
MMR
The MMR vaccine is a combination vaccine that provides protection against measles, mumps, and rubella. It is a highly effective and safe vaccine that has significantly reduced the incidence of these diseases worldwide.
Question 16
In coccidioidomycosis, spherules containing many endospores form in the lungs.
Missing Word
spherules
Coccidioidomycosis, or Valley Fever, is caused by the fungus Coccidioides immitis, which forms spherules in the lungs of infected individuals. These spherules are large, thick-walled structures filled with numerous endospores that are released upon rupture, spreading the infection.
Question 17
In cryptococcosis, the main fungal virulence factor is the capsule, which helps the pathogen avoid phagocytosis.
Missing Word
capsule
The capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans is a major virulence factor. It inhibits phagocytosis by immune cells, allowing the fungus to establish infection.
Question 18
In some mycoses, fungal balls called aspergillomas form in the lungs
Missing Word
aspergillomas
Aspergillomas are fungal balls, typically composed of Aspergillus hyphae, that can colonize pre-existing cavities in the lungs. These masses can cause respiratory symptoms and complications.
Question 19
Most US cases of coccidioidomycosis occur in the desert southwest.
Missing Word
the desert southwest
Coccidioidomycosis, also known as Valley Fever, is caused by the fungus Coccidioides immitis, which is endemic to arid regions. The desert southwest of the United States is a common area for infection.
Question 20
Coccidioidomycosis may develop when Coccidioides immitis arthrospores are inhaled.
Missing Word
arthrospores
Coccidioides immitis produces arthrospores, which are highly infectious asexual spores formed by fragmentation of hyphae. Inhalation of these arthrospores leads to the development of coccidioidomycosis.