When we inject an animal with the same antigen a second time a few weeks after the first, affinity maturation takes place, which means the antibodies produced after the second injection will on average bind the antigen more tightly.
Missing Words
affinity, maturation
Affinity maturation is the process by which B cells produce antibodies with progressively higher affinity for an antigen during an immune response. Repeated exposure to the antigen drives the selection of B cells producing antibodies with tighter binding.
Question 2
When using mAbs to treat disease in humans, the mAbs must first be humanized by replacing the mouse constant region DNA with human constant region DNA.
Missing Word
humanized
Humanizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) reduces the risk of immunogenicity when administered to humans. Replacing mouse constant regions with human sequences minimizes the likelihood of the patient's immune system recognizing the mAb as foreign.
Question 3
If we used normal mouse mAbs to treat human disease, multiple doses would cause the patient to respond with neutralizing antibodies against the mouse antibodies.
Missing Word
neutralizing antibodies
Repeated administration of non-human mAbs can trigger the production of anti-drug antibodies (ADAs), specifically neutralizing antibodies. These antibodies bind to the therapeutic mAb and block its activity, rendering it ineffective and potentially causing adverse reactions.
Question 4
A polyclonal response to an infection occurs because most antigens have multiple epitopes,
Missing Word
epitopes
Antigens typically possess multiple epitopes, which are distinct regions recognized by different B cell receptors. This leads to a polyclonal response, where multiple B cell clones are activated, each producing antibodies specific to a different epitope on the same antigen.
Question 5
When slowly adding antigen to an antiserum, the amount of precipitin would gradually increase until reaching the equivalence zone; addition of more antigen after this point would actually decrease the amount of precipitin.
Missing Word
equivalence zone
The equivalence zone represents the optimal ratio of antigen and antibody concentrations, leading to maximal precipitation. Adding excess antigen after this point results in smaller immune complexes that are less likely to precipitate, thus decreasing the amount of precipitin.
Question 6
The radial immunodiffusion test quantifies antigen by mixing antiserum into a gel and then allowing antigen to diffuse out from a well cut in the gel.
Missing Word
antiserum
Radial immunodiffusion relies on the diffusion of antigen through a gel matrix containing a uniform concentration of antiserum. The diameter of the precipitin ring formed is directly proportional to the antigen concentration.
Question 7
In the major cross-match, we mix patient serum with the donor red blood cells and look for agglutination.
Missing Words
patient, serum
The major cross-match is crucial for ensuring compatibility between the recipient's serum and the donor's red blood cells. Agglutination indicates the presence of antibodies in the patient's serum that can react with antigens on the donor's red blood cells, leading to a transfusion reaction.
Question 8
Coombs’ reagent is an antiserum with antibodies that bind to human immunoglobulins/antibodies and/or complement.
Missing Word
immunoglobulins/antibodies and/or complement
Coombs' reagent, also known as anti-human globulin (AHG), is used to detect antibodies or complement bound to red blood cells in vivo or in vitro. It works by cross-linking these bound molecules, causing agglutination and indicating the presence of antibody-mediated or complement-mediated reactions.
Question 9
To detect antibodies against bacteria in the bloodstream using an EIA, we would run a(n) indirect ELISA, which we would start by attaching antigen from the bacteria to the wells of a microtiter plate.
Missing Words
indirect, ELISA
An indirect ELISA is used to detect the presence of antibodies against a specific antigen. The process involves coating the microtiter plate with the antigen, adding the sample to be tested for antibodies, and then using a labeled secondary antibody to detect the bound primary antibody.
Question 10
In flow cytometry, cell subsets are labeled using a fluorescent antibody to a membrane protein. The fluorogen is activated by a(n) laser as the cells pass by the detectors.
Missing Word
laser
Flow cytometry uses a laser to excite fluorochromes attached to antibodies that bind to specific cell surface markers. The emitted fluorescence is then detected, allowing for the identification and quantification of different cell populations.
Question 11
Fluorescence in a flow cytometer is measured by a detector set at an angle to the light source. There is also an in-line detector that can detect cell clumps or fragments.
Missing Word
fragments
In flow cytometry, forward scatter (in-line detector) provides information about cell size, while side scatter (detector at an angle) provides information about cell granularity or internal complexity. The in-line detector can also identify cell clumps or fragments that may interfere with accurate analysis.