A membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes.
It controls the cell's growth, metabolism, and reproduction by regulating gene expression.
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Mitochondrion
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An organelle responsible for generating most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.
Often called the "powerhouse of the cell" due to its role in cellular respiration.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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A network of membranes within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, involved in protein and lipid synthesis and transport.
Divided into rough ER (with ribosomes) for protein synthesis and smooth ER (without ribosomes) for lipid synthesis and detoxification.
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Golgi Apparatus
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An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids synthesized in the ER for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
It can be thought of as the cell's postal service, preparing materials for their destination.
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Ribosome
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A macromolecular machine responsible for protein synthesis (translation), linking amino acids together in the order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA).
Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.
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Lysosome
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A membrane-bound organelle containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
They are crucial for waste disposal, recycling cellular components, and defending against pathogens.
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Chloroplast
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A plastid in plant and algal cells that conducts photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy.
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Central Vacuole
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A large, membrane-bound organelle in plant cells that stores water, nutrients, and waste products, and helps maintain turgor pressure.
Its turgor pressure helps support the plant cell and the plant itself.
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Plasma Membrane
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The selectively permeable outer boundary of an animal cell or the boundary just inside the cell wall of a plant cell, regulating the passage of substances.
It is composed primarily of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
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Phospholipid Bilayer
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The fundamental structure of the plasma membrane, consisting of two layers of phospholipids with their hydrophilic heads facing outwards and hydrophobic tails facing inwards.
This arrangement creates a barrier that is impermeable to most water-soluble molecules.
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Passive Transport
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The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy, driven by concentration gradients.
Examples include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
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Active Transport
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The movement of substances across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring cellular energy (ATP) and specific transport proteins.
This process allows cells to maintain specific internal concentrations of ions and molecules different from their surroundings.
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Osmosis
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The net movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration.
Osmosis is a specific type of passive transport that only involves water.
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Cell Cycle
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The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA to produce two daughter cells.
It consists of two main phases: interphase and the mitotic (M) phase.
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Interphase
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The longest phase of the cell cycle, during which a cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division.
Interphase is divided into three sub-phases: G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), and G2 (further growth and preparation for mitosis).
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Mitosis
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A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Mitosis is essential for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction in eukaryotic organisms.
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Prophase
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The first stage of mitosis, characterized by the condensation of chromatin into visible chromosomes and the formation of the mitotic spindle.
The nuclear envelope also begins to break down during this stage.
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Metaphase
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The stage of mitosis where chromosomes align along the metaphase plate (equator) of the cell.
This alignment ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes.
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Anaphase
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The stage of mitosis during which sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle fibers.
This separation ensures that each new nucleus will receive a complete set of chromosomes.
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Telophase & Cytokinesis
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Telophase is when chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes reform, followed by cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, to form two distinct daughter cells.
These two processes complete cell division, resulting in two genetically identical cells.
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Cellular Respiration
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The metabolic process by which cells break down glucose and other organic molecules to release energy, primarily in the form of ATP.
It occurs in multiple stages, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
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Glycolysis
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The first stage of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm, where one molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate.
This process produces a small amount of ATP and NADH without requiring oxygen.
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Electron Transport Chain
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A series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that use the energy from electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) to pump protons and generate ATP.
This is the primary site of ATP production in aerobic respiration, often called oxidative phosphorylation.
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Photosynthesis
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The process used by plants, algae, and some bacteria to convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.
It is essential for life on Earth as it produces oxygen and the organic molecules that form the base of most food webs.
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Calvin Cycle
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The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, occurring in the stroma of chloroplasts, where ATP and NADPH are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
This cycle is also known as the C3 pathway and is responsible for carbon fixation.