An economic theory prevalent in the 17th and 18th centuries that held that a nation's wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and accumulating precious metals, leading to colonial expansion to provide raw materials and markets. It differed from free trade by emphasizing government control over trade for national benefit.
Think of colonies as 'gold mines' and 'exclusive stores' for the mother country, rather than independent trading partners.
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Salutary Neglect
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An unofficial British policy in the 17th and 18th centuries of lax enforcement of parliamentary laws, especially trade laws, in the American colonies. This allowed the colonies to develop a degree of economic and political autonomy, fostering a sense of independence.
This 'hands-off' approach inadvertently prepared the colonists for self-governance, making British attempts to reassert control after the French and Indian War particularly resented.
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Great Awakening
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A series of religious revivals in the American colonies during the 1730s and 1740s that emphasized individual religious experience over church authority and traditional rituals. It challenged established religious hierarchies and fostered a sense of shared American identity and independent thought.
This religious movement contributed to a questioning of authority that later extended to political structures, influencing the revolutionary spirit.
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Committees of Correspondence
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Shadow governments organized by the Patriot leaders of the Thirteen Colonies on the eve of the American Revolution to coordinate resistance against British policies. They facilitated communication and unified colonial opposition, distinguishing them from formal legislative bodies.
These committees were crucial for building intercolonial unity and disseminating anti-British propaganda, acting as an early form of organized political network.
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Common Sense
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A widely influential pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776, arguing for immediate independence from Great Britain. It used plain language to appeal to common colonists, directly challenging monarchical rule and advocating for a republican government.
Paine's pamphlet was instrumental in shifting public opinion towards independence, making a clear and accessible case for revolution when many were still hesitant.
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Articles of Confederation
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The first governing document of the United States, adopted in 1781, which created a weak central government with limited powers, largely due to fear of strong central authority. It lacked the power to tax, regulate interstate commerce, or enforce laws effectively, leading to its replacement by the Constitution.
The Articles represented an extreme reaction against British tyranny, prioritizing states' rights to such an extent that the national government was largely ineffective.
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Federalist No. 10
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An essay by James Madison in The Federalist Papers arguing that a large republic, rather than a small one, is best suited to control the effects of factions, as it would be more difficult for any single faction to gain control. It countered the Anti-Federalist concern that a large republic would become tyrannical.
Madison's argument for a large republic to dilute factional power is a core concept for understanding the Constitution's design for stability.
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XYZ Affair
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A diplomatic incident in 1797-1798 during which French agents demanded a bribe from American envoys seeking to negotiate a treaty to stop French harassment of American shipping. It led to an undeclared naval war (the Quasi-War) and heightened anti-French sentiment in the U.S.
This affair significantly strained U.S.-French relations and contributed to the Alien and Sedition Acts, revealing early challenges to American neutrality.
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Marbury v. Madison
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A landmark 1803 Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional. Chief Justice John Marshall's ruling significantly expanded the power of the judicial branch.
This decision solidified the Supreme Court's role as an equal branch of government, capable of interpreting the Constitution and checking legislative power.
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Missouri Compromise
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A legislative agreement in 1820 that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while also prohibiting slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36°30′ parallel. It temporarily resolved the issue of slavery's expansion but highlighted growing sectional divisions.
This compromise revealed the deep and ongoing national struggle over slavery, setting a precedent for future legislative attempts to balance free and slave states.
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Nullification Crisis
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A political crisis in 1832-1833 during which South Carolina declared federal tariffs null and void within its borders, asserting a state's right to reject federal laws it deemed unconstitutional. President Andrew Jackson threatened military force, ultimately leading to a compromise tariff.
This crisis underscored the ongoing debate about states' rights versus federal authority, foreshadowing the secession crisis that would lead to the Civil War.
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Manifest Destiny
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The 19th-century belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand its dominion and spread democracy across the North American continent. This ideology fueled westward expansion, territorial acquisitions, and conflicts with Native Americans and Mexico.
This concept provided a powerful moral and religious justification for American expansionism, often at the expense of indigenous populations and other nations.
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Dred Scott v. Sandford
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An 1857 Supreme Court decision that ruled African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court, and that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in federal territories. This decision intensified sectional tensions leading to the Civil War.
This ruling effectively invalidated the Missouri Compromise and denied citizenship rights to all African Americans, deeply inflaming abolitionist sentiment and widening the divide between North and South.
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Emancipation Proclamation
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An executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declaring all enslaved people in Confederate states in rebellion to be free. It transformed the Civil War into a moral crusade against slavery and allowed for the enlistment of African American soldiers.
While not immediately freeing all slaves, it strategically shifted the Union's war aims and paved the way for the 13th Amendment, fundamentally changing the nature of the conflict.
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Anaconda Plan
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The Union's strategic plan during the Civil War, proposed by General Winfield Scott, which involved blockading Confederate ports and controlling the Mississippi River to 'strangle' the Southern economy. It aimed to defeat the Confederacy through economic and logistical pressure rather than direct invasion.
This plan highlighted the Union's long-term strategy of attrition and economic warfare, contrasting with initial hopes for a quick, decisive victory.
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Radical Republicans
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A faction within the Republican Party during and after the Civil War who advocated for the immediate and complete abolition of slavery, equal rights for African Americans, and harsh punishment for the Confederate states. They played a significant role in Reconstruction policies, including the impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
Their push for federal intervention to protect Black civil rights after the war distinguished them from more moderate Republicans who favored a quicker reconciliation with the South.
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Black Codes
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Laws passed by Southern states immediately after the Civil War, designed to restrict the freedom and economic opportunities of newly freed African Americans. These codes often forced Black individuals into labor contracts, limited their property rights, and controlled their movement, mimicking aspects of slavery.
These codes were a direct attempt by white Southerners to maintain racial hierarchy and control the Black labor force after emancipation, leading to federal intervention during Reconstruction.
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Vertical Integration
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An organizational strategy where a company controls multiple stages of its supply chain, from raw materials to manufacturing to distribution. Pioneered by figures like Andrew Carnegie, it allowed for greater efficiency, cost control, and market dominance.
This strategy allowed industrialists to maximize profits and reduce reliance on external suppliers, giving them significant competitive advantages over rivals.
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Social Darwinism
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A late 19th-century social theory applying Charles Darwin's concept of 'survival of the fittest' to human society and economic competition. It justified vast wealth inequality and imperialism by arguing that success was a sign of inherent superiority, while poverty indicated weakness.
This ideology was used to rationalize laissez-faire capitalism, discourage government intervention for the poor, and legitimize the dominance of wealthy industrialists.
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Sherman Antitrust Act
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A landmark federal law passed in 1890 that prohibited trusts and monopolies that restrained trade or commerce. Although initially weak and often used against labor unions, it was the first federal effort to regulate big business and promote competition.
While its initial impact was limited, this act established the principle that the federal government could intervene to prevent anti-competitive practices, laying the groundwork for future antitrust legislation.
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Plessy v. Ferguson
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A 1896 Supreme Court case that established the legal precedent of 'separate but equal,' upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation in public facilities. This ruling legalized Jim Crow laws across the South until overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.
This case provided the legal justification for systemic segregation, impacting generations of African Americans, and is often confused with its undoing.
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Muckrakers
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Investigative journalists and writers during the Progressive Era (early 20th century) who exposed corruption, social injustices, and corporate abuses in American society. Their reporting often led to public outcry and legislative reforms.
Their detailed and often sensational exposés, such as Upton Sinclair's 'The Jungle,' galvanized public opinion and spurred significant government action to address societal ills.
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Federal Reserve Act
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A 1913 act that created the Federal Reserve System, a central banking system of the United States. It was established to provide a more stable and flexible currency, regulate banking, and manage the nation's money supply, contrasting with the prior decentralized banking system.
This act marked a significant expansion of federal power in regulating the economy, aimed at preventing financial panics and stabilizing the banking sector.
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Espionage Act of 1917
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A federal law passed during World War I that made it a crime to interfere with military operations, promote insubordination in the armed forces, or support U.S. enemies during wartime. It was often used to suppress dissent and limit free speech.
This act, along with the Sedition Act of 1918, demonstrated the government's willingness to curtail civil liberties during wartime, raising questions about the balance between national security and individual rights.
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Lend-Lease Act
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A program instituted by the U.S. in 1941, before its entry into World War II, that allowed President Roosevelt to 'lend' or 'lease' war materials to nations deemed vital to the defense of the United States. It effectively ended American neutrality and provided crucial aid to Allied powers.
This act was a critical step away from isolationism, enabling the U.S. to support Allied efforts against Axis aggression without formally entering the war.
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Korematsu v. United States
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A 1944 Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. The Court ruled that the government's need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu's individual rights, a decision later widely condemned.
This case is a stark example of how civil liberties can be curtailed during wartime, demonstrating a significant failure of the judicial branch to protect minority rights.
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Truman Doctrine
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A Cold War foreign policy articulated by President Harry S. Truman in 1947, pledging U.S. support to free peoples resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures. It marked a shift towards a policy of containment against Soviet expansion.
This doctrine essentially declared the U.S. would intervene to prevent the spread of communism, setting the stage for decades of Cold War policy and interventions.
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Brown v. Board of Education
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A landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision that ruled state-sponsored segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the 'separate but equal' doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson. It signaled the beginning of the end for legal segregation in the United States.
This ruling was a pivotal moment for the Civil Rights Movement, providing the legal basis for dismantling segregation, though actual desegregation was a long and difficult process.
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Great Society
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A set of domestic programs in the United States launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1960s, aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice. Key initiatives included Medicare, Medicaid, federal aid to education, and civil rights legislation.
This ambitious legislative agenda significantly expanded the role of the federal government in social welfare and public services, creating programs that still exist today.